In the results and analysis a clear distinction was made between the pump function and social mobilisation. Both are desirable. However, in the literature, the writers often make the connection that good social mobilisation results in good pump function. This view is not supported by the data from this research project. In Figure 7 of section 6.5.1, “Principal Relationships highlighted by Case Study Data” we have attempted to illustrate the relationships between the constructs used in this project. We will use this diagram to guide the discussion on exit strategies.
The following discussion assumes the following scenario:- An emergency is drawing to an end. A number of new or rehabilitated water supplies have been installed with emergency funding from various donors. If the external agencies withdraw instantly the likelihood is that these water supplies will not be sustained by the local community and the local authorities do not have the capacity (or policy) to manage all the holes from a central location. An agency (either local government, NGO or multilateral) is considering spending some finance on either building government capacity or local community capacity to sustain the water supplies. The external agency will spend a limited time in a “planned exit strategy”. The end goal is that the existing emergency water supplies will be as sustainable as other supplies in that country that might have been put in by a developmental or planned approach.
Before discussing the above scenario, where an agency is attempting to exit, we must have a small diversion into the question as to whether exiting is actually possible and desirable. There are four points to be considered here.
1) At the heart of a good water, sanitation and health strategy is the desire to create sustainable water supply. However, the literature survey shows how the current emphasis is on an integrated strategy inclusive of sanitation and health education. Changes in knowledge and Practice of Health and hygiene concerns are unlikely to occur with only the input of a two year programme. An evaluation of one of the partner agencies notes that although the agency completed all the target activities, outputs and intermediate goal (actually exceeding on some points eg number of pumps and latrine slabs.) there was actually no change from baseline to evaluation of the Goal which concerned diarrhoea in both under and over 5 yr old and conjunctivitis. With another agency, there was some improvement in Bilharzias and malaria (due to not travelling to stagnant water sources). However the general principle seems to be that changes in health require long term health education and cannot be fit into a two year programme. In Malawi the Ministry of health have agents (HSA) that regularly visit villages, and they have taken the water supply under their wing as well.
2) Each of the partners have been working with water supplies in the country for over 7 years. Each of them has done this in 2 or 3 year projects, and each effectively promised to exit at the end of each project. Consider the impact of designing a 7 year programme which had a more realistic single timetable.
3) There is a strong need, acknowledged by the literature and data, for technical support on the second level repairs. The communities are unlikely to ever be able to undertake the very serious repairs (such as collapsed borehole). Therefore there must be some agency present (even if private supplier or local government authority) that has that extra technical capability.
4) The literature review clearly shows that “VLOM” is a combination of village level resources with local area resources (either local government or private suppliers). Complex second level repairs will probably need an agency external to the village. The local authority may be present as an implementing agent or as a regulator. In either case it is not true to imply that the village is left purely to its own resources to operate and maintain the pump.
5) Motivation within any social grouping will change and more than likely diminish over time. Again literature and data suggest that there must be “ongoing consultation” in order to keep the community motivated to pay. In theory this could be undertaken by the village water committee. However there is also the element that participation wanes after a while, and it may require very small but important external support to maintain participation and motivation.
The above seems to imply that the word exit can be misleading. It is unlikely that all external influences on a community will leave at the end of, say, a two year water supply programme. The local authority will continue with health education within their capacity, and it may be that other external agencies will spend a number of years in the area undertaking other development initiatives. Training of children in schools on health education has a particular impact on the long term response of the community.
The above also suggests that some small localised external input is necessary to maintain participation and motivation, and to provide technical support for the more severe water supply problems. One might use the term “handover” rather than exit to cover “handover” to communities and “handover” to local authroties and agencies. However, the word “exit” has been used to communicate the need for international agencies to look to local sustainability rather than keep a long term presence in an area.
Given the above caveat, let us now consider the possible issues and strategies for an external agency to consider so that it leaves a water supply in such a way as to be (as near as possible) “sustainable”.
Exit issue:- A good entry strategy is helpful. Given our scenario one is presented with a “fait accompli”. Even the simplest of community involvement at installation will enhance long term ownership.
Exit strategy:- If at all possible alter the entry strategy to involve the people in such basics as making the road to the borehole site! if this has not been possible then use follow up training and visits to dialogue with people on ownership and social mobilisation issues. Explain the project process as much as possible so the community understand the timing of any project (when exit will occur).
Exit issue:- Participatory dialogue with the wider community is useful for long term development goals of social mobilisation but may have limited impact on pump functionality.
Exit strategy:- promote dialogue on ownership, participation and organisation capability for long term goals (within mobilisation/training budget). However, where resources are scarce it is more important to have local technical competence to ensure pump availability.
Exit issue:- the village social power structures affect the organisation and management of the community response to the pump and will change over time.
Exit strategy:- promote dialogue on ownership, participation of the wider community and organisation. In conflict (post conflict) situations this must be undertaken with due care to the sensibilities of the conflicting parties. Methods of election to the management of a water supply should avoid appointment by powerful groups or individuals or being seen as appointments of the agency.
Exit issue:- participation will drop off over time, and motivation of committees will need to be sustained by incentives.
Exit strategy:- Water committees will respond to small inputs of ongoing dialogue and interest with external agencies. However it is important that these ideas are generated by the community and not imposed from outside.
Exit issue:- involvement of women may be culturally constrained. For wider goals of development and for longer term impact on water supplies it is important to involve women as much as possible.
Exit strategy:- when encouraging the formation of the water committee, women should be included. Training should try not to reinforce traditional roles, eg only soft skills of health and hygiene for the women, technical skills for men.
Exit issue:- local participation of the wider community does not directly shorten downtime or improve maintenance.
Exit strategy:- Local participation of the wider community can strengthen local organisation (committees), and this in turn can shorten downtime if there is enough local competence and spares are available. Build in participation as part of a general capacity building strategy.
Exit issue:- “Government departments generally have a technical focus and are not equipped to deal with socio-economic aspects of development”
Exit strategy:- “Agencies need to mobilise public and private partnerships to make optimum use of stakeholders”. Make strategic networks with other agencies enlisting those with a socio-economic understanding. (EG HSA workers in Malawi.)
Exit issue:- there is a need for some technical support from a local agency on severe second level technical problems.
Exit strategy:- identify local area resources that can address these more complex technical repairs to broken pumps. This may mean capacity building of local government, or training private suppliers.
Exit issue:- there is a need for some ongoing support from a local agency to encourage community management and motivation initiatives.
Exit strategy:- Although an NGO may plan its exit from the arena, it should build the socio-economic understanding in local agencies and authorities, so that they may give small but strategic ongoing support to the communities.
Exit issue:- Technology must be appropriate to ability and willingness to pay
Exit strategy:- Village profiling will give some indication of both ability and willingness to pay. If technology not appropriate, consider replacing technology (see below) Dialogue and training can affect WTP.
Exit issue:- the village social power structures affect the organisation and management of the community management of the pump and will change over time.
Exit strategy:- promote dialogue on ownership, participation and organisation. Methods of election to the management of a water supply should avoid appointment by powerful groups or individualsor being seen as appointments of the agency.
Exit issue:- there was no direct significant relationship between cost recovery and sense of ownership.
Exit strategy:- the message that the water point is the communities needs to be continually reinforced both by the community committees and by external agents. However, NGOs should note that strong leadership can collect the necessary finance and that poor wider community participation and ownership does not in itself imply poor VLOM.
Exit issue:- raising of funds is necessary for maintenance and repair of the borehole. However so many other factors, such as alternative sources and pressure on pump, affect the flow of finance, that one cannot clearly say that regular collection of a quota actually shortens downtime.
Exit strategy:- Training should include discussion on the various options of financing repairs but the mechanisms for collecting money and storing it are best left to the communities to decide.
Exit issue:- Raising of funds is necessary for replacement of the system in the longer term future. The data did not yield any insights to this challenge.
Exit strategy:- Replacement needs to be discussed with the community. Strategic connections between the community and the financial service sector may need to be made, this will vary based on the country context.
Exit issue:- Neither participation of the wider community nor organisation guarantees good pump functioning. While it may be desirable for integrated water, health and sanitation programmes and longer term development, it is not critical to good pump function. Competence is more important.
Exit strategy:- If time and resources are limited it is better to focus trainings on the technical skill required to maintain and repair pumps rather than organisation and wider community participation skills – UNLESS the programme is a part of a longer term programme on health and sanitation.
Exit issue:- There is a higher frequency of breakage when local communities repair the borehole than when an external person or group does (area mechanic or local government). i.e. the external person has a greater competence, possibly resulting from longer training and more experience.
Exit strategy:- The key element is competence. Local community based mechanics need as much technical training as possible. Follow up trainings should always have technical components alongside any social elements. Longer trainings were more effective – exit trainings should be as long as necessary to cover clearly all the subjects.
Exit issues:- It is clear that pumps with women mechanics or caretakers, function as well as equivalent pumps maintained by men
Exit strategy:- Train women in both soft and hard skills. Women can make use of transferable practical skills such as pump maintenance and repair.
Exit issue:- Shorter downtimes are found when many local people are trained.
Exit strategy:- It is clear from the research that a good exit strategy trains as many people as possible (minimum more than 2). The mechanics can be men or women. An emphasis on people from within the user community will shorten downtime.
Exit issue:- health and hygiene training is best applied when in the context of community mobilisation for pump O&M (and repair). It does not seem possible to legislate hygiene – it is based on relationships and awareness.
Exit strategy:- Training of local committees should include technical, organisational, financial and health areas. Trainings should encourage people to problem solve on health rather than legislate (ie rules and sanctions do not produce as good a result as ongoing dialogue between community agents and their own community).
Exit issue:- Some of the strongest factors influencing pump function are the depth and technology. If emergency supplies for resettled populations are to be addressed then an agency is generally presented “fait accompli” with depth and technology.
Exit strategy: Consider changing the technology. One agency in the study used Afridev pumps beyond their recommended depths because even though they would be subject to a higher frequency of breakdown the net result was more sustainable than the alternative Volanta.
Exit issue:- There must be a supply of spares which can be accessed by the communities. Private local suppliers seem to be a reasonable option although there are considerable problems with the profitability of spares. Low turnover and low profit margins combine to make stocking pump spares an unattractive proposition from a business point of view.
Exit strategy:-. It is important to either find retailers who are willing to do it out of a sense of duty to their community, or to allow retailers nearer a 100% handling charge. If such a handling charge is allowed, it must not be undermined by agencies or governments supplying spares at a subsidised rate.
Exit issue:- Those communities with access to alternative sources, both boreholes and unreliable surface water, will be slower in repairing their pumps than those without.
Exit strategy:- The response of the community may be influenced over the long term by a programme of health and hygiene awareness.
Exit issue:- Those pumps with salty water which is only used for washing and not regularly used for drinking, will have longer downtimes.
Exit strategy:- make these holes low priority. Do not spend time and effort on these holes, there are other holes where the same effort will produce a better result regarding sustainability.
Exit issue:- Settlement will be affected by the borehole and in particular the confidence the people have in the pump being repaired quickly.
Exit strategy:- If the agency wants to encourage settlement in a particular location, or set of villages, then it must promote competence, and make sure it is seen to do so.
This section has not commented on environmental sustainability of the pump. Data was not available that could determine the key issues. Environmental sustainability must be considered when planning an exit strategy. This will include issues such as:-
Readers are referred to The Manual of Environmental Appraisal (ODA 1996b)
Exit Issue:- One of the issues surrounding this project concerns – who funds the post emergency or resettlement exit. Emergencies seem to be generally handled by a specific department within an agency. Funding is often very time bound and post emergency resettlement and rehabilitation is from another tranche of funds or is handled by another department within the agency. Agencies (or department within agencies) that specialise in development may then be reluctant to pick up on “emergency” assets, citing that the entry strategy (participatory planning) is the most critical feature of the development cycle, and that it would be better to fund new projects rather than “rescue” water supplies that were put in with “poor entry strategies”.
One of the conclusions of this research is that a good exit strategy can make up for a poor (non participatory) entry strategy. The challenge remains though – who will fund these exit actions in order to leave “emergency water supplies for resettlement populations” in a sustainable condition.
Exit Strategy:- The case studies suggest that both funding and implementing agencies working with water supplies and/or having integrated programmes on water, sanitation and health, should not abandon water points that were the outcome of an emergency or resettlement programme. They should work with the local authorities and local communities on a planned exit strategy (see guidelines section above) to turn the water points into sustainable supplies owned and managed by the local population.
Exit Issue:- Having suggested that agencies seriously consider investing extra resources to turn “emergency” water supplies into sustainable supplies, we must ask the question regarding cost effectiveness.
The direct costs per borehole for the agencies in this research project vary considerably, from a few thousand to approximately ten thousand dollars. The support costs are more consistent approximately the same amount again. Where one agency is implementing a development strategy of participatory entry including the communities participating in the purchase of the initial equipment, the cost per supply including all post installation trainings is approximately $12,000 (Evaluation 1997).
Exit Strategy:- Exit strategies need not cost a lot of money although the case studies seem to indicate that to stimulate effective ownership of a water supply and to put in place the technical competency required to VLOM and repair that borehole, costs about the same amount as the original hardware of the water supply. However a planned exit strategy that utilises the minimum guidelines would cost about half the original cost of the borehole (assuming normal borehole costs, not low cost techniques).
Exit Strategy:- Emergency water supplies are often put in by agencies with considerable sums of money at their immediate disposal (funds raised to save human life in response to the emergency). Development agencies often have a lot less money for disposal. Emergency agencies could put aside an amount equal to the original cost of putting in the hardware for a longer term planned exit strategy.
Exit Issue:- All the agencies commented on how they have been working for many years on water supplies, but have always had short contracts of 1, 2 or rarely 3 years. With longer term contracts a more strategic plan could be made with phased exit from communities and handover to local authorities or private suppliers.
Exit strategy:- Donors could consider the longer term goals of an emergency programme, and fund external agencies accordingly. They also need to be flexible to achieve stated goals, to allow for change in circumstances and time scales during implementation.
Exit issue:- We have said above that the supply chain is important and that there must be a supply of spares. The case studies indicate that spares through private local suppliers can be effective. The research project has generated only qualitative data regarding the supply chain pre local supplier. There are issues of initial purchase of the pump. If the pump can be purchased by an in-country manufacturer then the supply of spares will be more likely to be ongoing and sustainable. However in many emergency situations, local manufacturers may not have enough stock to supply the programme, the local manufacturers may not be able to manufacture new pumps quickly enough (or if they can it is at the cost of quality), and emergency programmes (like all large programmes) may have rules about tendering which can favour lower cost external suppliers. Since the cost of materials in Asia is considerably cheaper than Africa, pumps imported from Asia often have a price advantage despite the transport costs. The original supplier of pumps ideally should have an arrangement with a network of local retailers to supply spares.
It should be noted that this is considered a major issue in Mozambique. Work with the private sector is crucial as Government policy is not to provide spares. The implementing agency should also not provide spares as this is not sustainable in the longer term. The private sector therefore seems to be the way forward for Mozambique.
Exit Strategy:- Given our scenario that an emergency programme has been undertaken and the agency is now considering how it may exit leaving sustainable supplies, we must assume that a contractual arrangement with the supplier to have the local network of retailers is not in place. What then can an agency do? The agency should work with the government to source a supply of spares and capacity build to establish the relevant network. This action may be being undertaken by other agencies, and these macro issues must be tackled by a co-ordinated effort, not a single agency response.
We have said above that private suppliers should be given the opportunity to make a profit by placing a reasonable handling charge on small items, and not being undermined by free gifts from local government or agencies. This supply of spares should not need to be subsidised at any stage of the long term process either as an incentive to the suppliers or to the distributors. The research indicates that communities can raise finance for spares if they are committed to the water supply. We have also noted that private suppliers could also undertake the more complex repairs and become “area mechanics” with good technical competence providing ongoing technical support to the community. Training by the agency can be offered during the exit process perhaps for a nominal training fee to ensure commitment by the new businesses.
While the above encourages a purely private enterprise response to the supply of spares based on economics, it must be noted that the existing supply chain is strongly influenced by “good intention” by the local retailers. They see their action of supplying spares not so much as a profitable enterprise but as a service to the community. This goodwill is commendable. However it may or may not be sustainable.
It should also be noted that some communities may prove to be very technically competent. They may then provide their skills for payment to other nearby communities, effectively becoming private enterprise. Examples of this were found in the research case studies.
Table 1 Summary of suggested exit strategy components.
|
Participation |
|
|
|
|
Design recommendations |
Community participation at or before installation |
Exit issue:- A good entry strategy is helpful. Given our scenario one is presented with a “fait accompli”. Even the simplest of community involvement at installation will enhance long term ownership. |
If at all possible alter the entry strategy to involve the people in such basics as making the road to the borehole site! Exit strategy:- if this has not been possible then use follow up training and visits to dialogue with people on ownership and social mobilisation issues. |
|
|
Promotes ownership |
Exit issue:- Participatory dialogue with the wider community is useful for long term development goals of social mobilisation but may have limited impact on pump functionality. |
Exit strategy:- promote dialogue on ownership, participation and organisation capability for long term goals (within mobilisation/training budget). However, where resources are scarce it is more important to have local technical competence to ensure pump availability. |
|
|
Role of women |
See below |
|
|
Design Constraints |
Ability and training |
|
|
|
|
Conflict in community |
Exit issue:- the village social power structures affect the organisation and management of the community response to the pump and will change over time. |
Exit strategy:- promote dialogue on ownership, participation of the wider community and organisation. In conflict (post conflict) situations this must be undertaken with due care to the sensibilities of the conflicting parties. Methods of election to the management of a water supply should avoid appointment by powerful groups or individuals or being seen as appointments of the agency. |
|
|
Sustainability of participation |
Exit issue:- participation will drop off over time, and motivation of committees will need to be sustained by incentives. |
Exit strategy:- Water committees will respond to small inputs of ongoing dialogue and interest with external agencies. However it is important that these ideas are generated by the community and not imposed from outside. |
|
|
Genuine contribution by women, Cultural standing of women, Heavy workloads of women |
Exit issue:- involvement of women may be culturally constrained. For wider goals of development and for longer term impact on water supplies it is important to involve women as much as possible. |
Exit strategy:- when encouraging the formation of the water committee, women should be included. Training should try not to reinforce traditional roles, eg NOT only soft skills of health and hygiene for the women and technical skills for men. Women show similar competence on technical skills if trained. |
|
|
Participation in maintenance |
Exit issue:- local participation of the wider community does not directly shorten downtime or improve maintenance. |
Exit strategy:- Local participation of the wider community can strengthen local organisation (committees), and this in turn can shorten downtime if there is enough local competence and spares are available. Build in participation as part of a general capacity building strategy. |
|
Outcomes |
Access to local knowledge and skills |
|
|
|
|
Capacity building |
|
|
|
Organisation |
|
|
|
|
Design recommendations |
Role of external agencies |
Exit issue:- “Government departments generally have a technical focus and are not equipped to deal with socio-economic aspects of development” |
Exit strategy:- “Agencies need to mobilise public and private partnerships to make optimum use of stakeholders”. Make strategic networks with other agencies enlisting those with a socio-economic understanding. (EG health workers in Malawi.) |
|
|
On-going support |
Exit issue:- there is a need for some technical support from a local agency on second level technical problems. |
Exit strategy:- identify local area resources that can address these more complex technical repairs to broken pumps. This may mean capacity building of local government, or training private suppliers. |
|
|
External support (government) |
Exit issue:- there is a need for some ongoing support from a local agency to encourage community management and motivation initiatives. |
Exit strategy:- Although an NGO may plan its exit from the arena, it should build the socio-economic understanding in local agencies and authorities, so that they may give small but strategic ongoing support to the community. |
|
|
Payment of members |
No findings from this study |
|
|
Design Constraints |
Local community characteristics |
Exit issue:- Technology must be appropriate to ability and willingness to pay |
Exit strategy:- Village profiling will give some indication of both ability and willingness to pay. If technology not appropriate, consider replacing technology (see below) Dialogue and training can affect WTP. |
|
|
Motivation of members |
No findings from this study |
|
|
|
Local power structures |
Exit issue:- the village social power structures affect the organisation and management of the community response to the pump and will change over time. |
Exit strategy:- promote dialogue on ownership, participation and organisation. In conflict (post conflict) situations this must be undertaken with due care to the sensibilities of the conflicting parties. Methods of election to the management of a water supply should avoid appointment by powerful groups or individuals. |
|
|
Fragmented communities |
See above “Local power structures” |
|
|
|
Method of election (women) |
See above “Conflict in community” |
|
|
|
Instilling ownership |
Exit issue:- there was no direct significant relationship between cost recovery and sense of ownership. |
Exit strategy:- the message that the water point is the communities needs to be continually reinforced both by the community committees and by external agents. However, NGOs should note that strong leadership can collect the necessary finance and that poor wider community participation and ownership does not in itself imply poor VLOM.
|
|
|
Cost recovery |
See below “Collect money regularly or at breakdown” |
|
|
|
Collect money regularly or at breakdown? |
Exit issue:- raising of funds is necessary for maintenance and repair of the borehole. However so many other factors, such as alternative sources and pressure on pump, affect the flow of finance, that one cannot clearly say that regular collection of a quota actually shortens downtime. |
Exit strategy:- Training should include discussion on the various options of financing repairs but the mechanisms for collecting money and storing it are best left to the communities to decide. |
|
|
|
Exit issue:- raising of funds is necessary for replacement of the system in the longer term future. The data did not yield any insights to this challenge.
|
Exit strategy:- Replacement needs to be discussed with the community. Strategic connections between the community and the financial service sector may need to be made, this will vary based on the country context.
|
|
Training (Education) |
|
|
|
|
Design recommendations |
Topics to include technical, organisational and financial areas. |
Exit issue:- Neither participation of the wider community nor organisation guarantees good pump functioning. While it may be desirable for integrated water, health and sanitation programmes and longer term development, it is not critical to good pump function. Competence is more important. |
Exit strategy:- If time and resources are limited it is better to focus trainings on the technical skill required to maintain and repair pumps rather than organisation and participation skills – UNLESS the programme is a part of a longer term programme on health and sanitation. |
|
|
Contributes to motivation |
Exit issue:- There is a higher frequency of breakage when local communities repair the borehole than when an external person or group does (area mechanic or local government). i.e. the external person has a greater competence, possibly resulting from longer training and more experience. |
Exit strategy:- The key element is competence. Local community based mechanics need as much technical training as possible. Follow up trainings should always have technical components alongside any social elements. Longer trainings were more effective – exit trainings should be as long as necessary to cover clearly all the subjects. |
|
Design Constraints |
Gender issues |
Exit issues:- It is clear that pumps with women mechanics or caretakers, function as pump as equivalent pumps maintained by men |
Exit strategy:- Train women in both soft and hard skills. Women can make use of transferable practical skills such as pump maintenance and repair. |
|
|
Level of training |
Exit issue:- Shorter downtimes are found when many local people are trained. |
Exit strategy:- It is clear from the research that a good exit strategy trains as many people as possible (minimum more than 2). The mechanics can be men or women. An emphasis on people from within the user community will shorten downtime.
|
|
Competence |
|
|
|
|
Design Constraints |
Capacity of link organisation |
See all above |
|
|
Context |
|
|
|
|
Design recommendations |
Complementary activities |
Exit issue:- health and hygiene training is best applied when in the context of community mobilisation for pump O&M (and repair). It does not seem possible to legislate hygiene – it is based on relationships and awareness. |
Exit strategy:- Training of local committees should include technical, organisational, financial and health areas. Trainings should encourage people to problem solve on health rather than legislate (ie rules and sanctions do not produce as good a result as ongoing dialogue between community agents and their own community). |
|
|
Technology must be appropriate |
Exit issue:- Some of the strongest factors influencing pump function are the depth and technology. If emergency supplies for resettled populations are to be addressed then an agency is generally presented “fait accompli” with depth and technology. |
Exit strategy: Consider changing the technology. One agency in the study used Afridev pumps beyond their recommended depths because even though they would be subject to a higher frequency of breakdown the net result was more sustainable than the alternative Volanta. |
|
|
Availability of spares |
Exit issue:- There must be a supply of spares which can be accessed by the communities. Private local suppliers seem to be a reasonable option although there are considerable problems with the profitability of spares. Low turnover and low profit margins combine to make stocking pump spares an unattractive proposition from a business point of view. |
Exit strategy:-. It is important to either find retailers who are willing to do it out of a sense of duty to their community, or to allow retailers nearer a 100% handling charge. If such a handling charge is allowed, it must not be undermined by agencies or governments supplying spares at a subsidised rate. |
|
Design Constraints |
Exit issue:- Those communities with access to alternative sources, both boreholes and unreliable surface water, will be slower in repairing their pumps than those without. |
Exit strategy:- The response of the community may be influenced over the long term by a programme of health and hygiene awareness. |
|
|
|
Problems for the private sector |
See above Availability of spares |
|
|
Additional Issues |
|
|
|
|
|
Optimal use of water |
Exit issue:- Those pumps with salty water which is only used for washing and not regularly used for drinking, will have longer downtimes. |
Exit strategy:- make these holes low priority. Do not spend time and effort on these holes, there are other holes where the same effort will produce a better result regarding sustainability. |
|
|
Exit issue:- Settlement will be affected by the borehole and in particular the confidence the people have in the pump being repaired quickly. |
Exit strategy:- If the agency wants to encourage settlement in a particular location, or set of villages, then it must promote competence, and make sure it is seen to do so. |